A CRITICAL EVALUATION OF CORRUPTION IN BUDGET ADMINISTRATION IN NIGERIA (1999 – 2007) Part 2 By Joseph Don

TYPES OF CORRUPTION

There is no denying the fact that there are diverse shades of corrupt practices. These include the follpwing:

Political corruption takes place in the use of government powers by government officials for illegitimate private gain. It takes place at the highest place of political authority. It occurs when the politicians and political decision-makers, who are entitled to formulate, establish, and implement the laws in the name of the people, are themselves corrupt. Political corruption can sometimes referred to as “corruption of greed” as it affects the way and manner decisions are made, especially when policy formulation and legislation are tailored to benefit politicians and legislators. Viewed in the Nigerian context, budget proposal and approval are often delayed in the parliament, leading to suspicions and stalemate between the Executive and Legislature.

Neologism kleptocracy occurs if the highest echelons of the government also take advantage from corruption or embezzlement from the State’s treasury. According to recent series of proofs and whistle-blowing adventure in  the corruption scene in the country, high government officials in Nigeria do take advantage from our collective resources and enrich themselves through tax money often spent on showy buildings, fast food investment, private security and other personal income yielding ventures.  

Bureaucratic corruption takes place in the public administration end of politics. Research has shown that this type is normally branded “low level and street level corruption”. An average Nigerian citizen encounters this daily at the hospitals, schools, local licensing offices, police stations and other public organisations. It occurs mainly when one obtains business from the public sector through inappropriate procedure. One, no doubt, will agree that this form of corruption has become endemic in the Nigerian society. It expresses itself as demanding money from applicants for jobs and contracts. Isn't it real in Nigeria that sometimes bribes are collected ever before the job or contract comes through? In 2007, for instance, Vice President Atiku Abubakar had alleged in a bribery scandal which involved the Federal Government and a contractor. “Those he mentioned include top managers of the Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation, NNPC, and a former Finance Minister …” (Sunday Champion, Dec. 2, 2007:3)

Electoral corruption involves, on the other hand, buying of votes with money, promises of office or special favours, coercion, intimidation and interference with freedom of election. One is of the opinion that Nigeria is a good example where this practice is common, with exception of the 2011 general election under President Goodluck Jonathan. This is because votes are bought, people are killed or maimed in the name of election, losers end up as winners and votes turn up in areas where they were not cast.

Autogenic corruption is self-generating. It equates with what happens in cases of insider trading, where one takes advantage of some vital information that may influence a business in an organisation and quickly reacts to benefit from the consequence of such information when it eventually comes to pass. 

Defensive corruption takes place where a person in need of a critical service is compelled to bribe in order to prevent unpleasant consequences being inflicted on his interests. Comparatively, this type involving the giving of bribe can be likened to bureaucratic corruption. One might be tempted to justify this when one says “this personal corruption is in self-defence.”

 Extortive corruption occurs when the behaviour of a person demands personal compensation in exchange for services. This type goes hand–in-hand with the defensive corruption because it involves the collecting of bribe. 

Investive corruption entails the offer of goods or service without any direct link to favour oneself at the present, but in anticipation of future situation when the favour may occur. 

Nepotistic corruption is believed to be the preferential treatment of, or unjustified appointment of friends or relations to public office in violation of the accepted guidelines. In Nigeria, this type of corruption mainly violate the principle of federal character in appointment into public offices.

Supportive corruption does not involve financial benefit or quick gains. Rather, it speaks for actions embarked upon to encourage on-going corrupt practices. This can be exemplified where a corrupt official may attempt to stop the election or appointments of an honest person into political office for fear of being probed by the successor. In Nigeria, successive regimes can hardly probe their predecessors. This may be a good example. 

Transactive corruption, as the name implies, refers to occasions where both parties are mutual and willing agents in corrupt practice to the advantage of both parties. 

There are, however many other terms used to refer to the word “corruption”. These are: kickback, graft, embezzlement, patronage, cronyism, kleptocracy, ten percent etc.

To be continued